مقاله انگلیسی با ترجمه فارسی رشته برق Handbook of Electrical Engineering
صفحات ۳۷۴-۳۹۱ مقاله انگلیسی و
صفحات ۴۰۸–۳۹۲
مقاله انگلیسی با ترجمه فارسی رشته برق Handbook of Electrical Engineering
Contents
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxiii
About the Author xxv
۱ Estimation of Plant Electrical Load 1
۱٫۱ Preliminary Single-Line Diagrams 1
۱٫۲ Load Schedules 2
۱٫۲٫۱ Worked example 5
۱٫۳ Determination of Power Supply Capacity 8
۱٫۴ Standby Capacity of Plain Cable Feeders and Transformer Feeders 12
۱٫۵ Rating of Generators in Relation to their Prime Movers 13
۱٫۵٫۱ Operation at low ambient temperatures 13
۱٫۵٫۲ Upgrading of prime movers 13
۱٫۶ Rating of Motors in Relation to their Driven Machines 13
۱٫۷ Development of Single-Line Diagrams 14
۱٫۷٫۱ The key single line diagram 15
۱٫۷٫۲ Individual switchboards and motor control centres 15
۱٫۸ Coordination with other Disciplines 16
۱٫۸٫۱ Process engineers 16
۱٫۸٫۲ Mechanical engineers 17
۱٫۸٫۳ Instrument engineers 17
۱٫۸٫۴ Communication and safety engineers 18
۱٫۸٫۵ Facilities and operations engineers 18
Reference 18
۲ Gas Turbine Driven Generators 19
۲٫۱ Classification of Gas Turbine Engines 19
۲٫۱٫۱ Aero-derivative gas turbines 19
۲٫۱٫۲ Light industrial gas turbines 20
۲٫۱٫۳ Heavy industrial gas turbines 20
۲٫۱٫۴ Single and two-shaft gas turbines 20
۲٫۱٫۵ Fuel for gas turbines 23
۲٫۲ Energy Obtained from a Gas Turbine 23
۲٫۲٫۱ Effect of an inefficient compressor and turbine 29
۲٫۲٫۲ Maximum work done on the generator 30
viii
۲٫۲٫۳ Variation of specific heat 31
۲٫۲٫۴ Effect of ducting pressure drop and combustion chamber
pressure drop 32
۲٫۲٫۵ Heat rate and fuel consumption 35
۲٫۳ Power Output from a Gas Turbine 36
۲٫۳٫۱ Mechanical and electrical power losses 37
۲٫۳٫۲ Factors to be considered at the design stage of a power plant 37
۲٫۴ Starting Methods for Gas Turbines 39
۲٫۵ Speed Governing of Gas Turbines 39
۲٫۵٫۱ Open-loop speed-torque characteristic 39
۲٫۵٫۲ Closed-loop speed-power characteristic 41
۲٫۵٫۳ Governing systems for gas turbines 43
۲٫۵٫۴ Load sharing between droop-governed gas turbines 44
۲٫۵٫۵ Load sharing controllers 50
۲٫۶ Mathematical Modelling of Gas Turbine Speed Governing Systems 52
۲٫۶٫۱ Modern practice 52
۲٫۶٫۲ Typical parameter values for speed governing systems 59
References 59
Further Reading 59
۳ Synchronous Generators and Motors 61
۳٫۱ Common Aspects Between Generators and Motors 61
۳٫۲ Simplified Theory of Operation of a Generator 61
۳٫۲٫۱ Steady state armature reaction 62
۳٫۲٫۲ Transient state armature reaction 63
۳٫۲٫۳ Sub-transient state armature reaction 63
۳٫۳ Phasor Diagram of Voltages and Currents 64
۳٫۴ The Derived Reactances 65
۳٫۴٫۱ Sensitivity of xmd , xa, xf and xkd to changes in physical
dimensions 67
۳٫۵ Active and Reactive Power Delivered from a Generator 68
۳٫۵٫۱ A general case 68
۳٫۵٫۲ The particular case of a salient pole generator 70
۳٫۵٫۳ A simpler case of a salient pole generator 71
۳٫۶ The Power Versus Angle Chart of a Salient Pole Generator 72
۳٫۷ Choice of Voltages for Generators 73
۳٫۸ Typical Parameters of Generators 73
۳٫۹ Construction Features of High Voltage Generators and Induction Motors 78
۳٫۹٫۱ Enclosure 78
۳٫۹٫۲ Reactances 79
۳٫۹٫۳ Stator windings 79
۳٫۹٫۴ Terminal boxes 80
۳٫۹٫۵ Cooling methods 80
۳٫۹٫۶ Bearings 80
References 81
ix
۴ Automatic Voltage Regulation 83
۴٫۱ Modern Practice 83
۴٫۱٫۱ Measurement circuits 83
۴٫۱٫۲ Error sensing circuit 84
۴٫۱٫۳ Power amplifier 84
۴٫۱٫۴ Main exciter 88
۴٫۲ IEEE Standard AVR Models 89
۴٫۲٫۱ Worked example 92
۴٫۲٫۲ Worked example 92
۴٫۲٫۳ Determining of saturation constants 93
۴٫۲٫۴ Typical parameter values for AVR systems 97
Reference 97
۵ Induction Motors 99
۵٫۱ Principle of Operation of the Three-Phase Motor 99
۵٫۲ Essential Characteristics 100
۵٫۲٫۱ Motor torque versus speed characteristic 100
۵٫۲٫۲ Motor starting current versus speed characteristic 107
۵٫۲٫۳ Load torque versus speed characteristic 108
۵٫۲٫۴ Sensitivity of characteristics to changes in resistances and reactances 109
۵٫۲٫۵ Worked example 109
۵٫۲٫۶ Typical impedance data for two-pole and four-pole induction motors 114
۵٫۲٫۷ Representing the deep-bar effect by two parallel branches 114
۵٫۳ Construction of Induction Motors 119
۵٫۴ Derating Factors 121
۵٫۵ Matching the Motor Rating to the Driven Machine Rating 121
۵٫۶ Effect of the Supply Voltage on Ratings 122
۵٫۷ Effect of the System Fault Level 123
۵٫۸ Cable Volt-drop Considerations 123
۵٫۹ Critical Times for Motors 125
۵٫۱۰ Methods of Starting Induction Motors 125
۵٫۱۰٫۱ Star-delta method 126
۵٫۱۰٫۲ Korndorfer auto-transformer method 126
۵٫۱۰٫۳ Soft-start power electronics method 127
۵٫۱۰٫۴ Series reactor method 128
۵٫۱۰٫۵ Part winding method 129
References 129
۶ Transformers 131
۶٫۱ Operating Principles 131
۶٫۲ Efficiency of a Transformer 134
۶٫۳ Regulation of a Transformer 135
۶٫۴ Three-Phase Transformer Winding Arrangements 136
۶٫۵ Construction of Transformers 137
۶٫۵٫۱ Conservator and sealed type tanks 139
x
۶٫۶ Transformer Inrush Current 140
References 142
۷ Switchgear and Motor Control Centres 143
۷٫۱ Terminology in Common Use 143
۷٫۲ Construction 144
۷٫۲٫۱ Main busbars 144
۷٫۲٫۲ Earthing busbars 146
۷٫۲٫۳ Incoming and busbar section switching device 146
۷٫۲٫۴ Forms of separation 147
۷٫۲٫۵ Ambient temperature derating factor 149
۷٫۲٫۶ Rated normal current 149
۷٫۲٫۷ Fault making peak current 149
۷٫۲٫۸ Fundamental AC part 150
۷٫۲٫۹ DC part 150
۷٫۲٫۱۰ Double frequency AC part 150
۷٫۲٫۱۱ Fault breaking current 152
۷٫۲٫۱۲ Fault withstand duty 153
۷٫۳ Switching Devices 154
۷٫۳٫۱ Outgoing switching device for switchgear 154
۷٫۳٫۲ Outgoing switching device for motor control centres 155
۷٫۴ Fuses for Motor Control Centre Outgoing Circuits 156
۷٫۵ Safety Interlocking Devices 157
۷٫۶ Control and Indication Devices 158
۷٫۶٫۱ Restarting and reaccelerating of motors 158
۷٫۶٫۲ Micro-computer based systems 159
۷٫۷ Moulded Case Circuit Breakers 162
۷٫۷٫۱ Comparison with fuses 162
۷٫۷٫۲ Operating characteristics 163
۷٫۷٫۳ Cut-off current versus prospective current 164
۷٫۷٫۴ i-squared-t characteristic 164
۷٫۷٫۵ Complete and partial coordination of cascaded circuit breakers 165
۷٫۷٫۶ Worked example for coordination of cascaded circuit breakers 167
۷٫۷٫۷ Cost and economics 172
References 172
۸ Fuses 173
۸٫۱ General Comments 173
۸٫۲ Operation of a Fuse 174
۸٫۳ Influence of the Circuit X-to-R Ratio 174
۸٫۴ The I 2t Characteristic 176
۸٫۴٫۱ Worked example 179
References 181
xi
۹ Cables, Wires and Cable Installation Practices 183
۹٫۱ Electrically Conducting Materials used in the Construction of Cables 183
۹٫۱٫۱ Copper and aluminium 184
۹٫۱٫۲ Tin 184
۹٫۱٫۳ Phosphor bronze 185
۹٫۱٫۴ Galvanised steel 185
۹٫۱٫۵ Lead 186
۹٫۲ Electrically Non-Conducting Materials used in the Construction of
Cables 187
۹٫۲٫۱ Definition of basic terminology 187
۹٫۳ Composition of Power and Control Cables 191
۹٫۳٫۱ Compositional notation 192
۹٫۳٫۲ Conductor 192
۹٫۳٫۳ Conductor semiconducting screen 196
۹٫۳٫۴ Insulation 196
۹٫۳٫۵ Insulation semiconductor screen 197
۹٫۳٫۶ Inner sheath 197
۹٫۳٫۷ Lead sheathing 197
۹٫۳٫۸ Armouring 198
۹٫۳٫۹ Outer sheath 198
۹٫۴ Current Ratings of Power Cables 198
۹٫۴٫۱ Continuous load current 198
۹٫۴٫۲ Continuous rated current of a cable 199
۹٫۴٫۳ Volt-drop within a cable 209
۹٫۴٫۴ Protection against overloading current 242
۹٫۵ Cables with Enhanced Performance 244
۹٫۵٫۱ Fire retardance 244
۹٫۵٫۲ Fire resistance 245
۹٫۵٫۳ Emission of toxic gases and smoke 245
۹٫۵٫۴ Application of fire retardant and fire resistant cables 246
Reference 247
۱۰ Hazardous Area Classification and the Selection of Equipment 249
۱۰٫۱ Historical Developments 249
۱۰٫۲ Present Situation 249
۱۰٫۳ Elements of Hazardous Area Classification 251
۱۰٫۳٫۱ Mixtures of gases, vapours and air 251
۱۰٫۴ Hazardous Area Zones 253
۱۰٫۴٫۱ Non-hazardous area 253
۱۰٫۴٫۲ Zone 2 hazardous area 253
۱۰٫۴٫۳ Zone 1 hazardous area 253
۱۰٫۴٫۴ Zone 0 hazardous area 254
۱۰٫۴٫۵ Adjacent hazardous zones 254
xii
۱۰٫۵ Types of Protection for Hazardous Areas 254
۱۰٫۵٫۱ Type of protection ‘d’ ۲۵۵
۱۰٫۵٫۲ Type of protection ‘e’ ۲۵۶
۱۰٫۵٫۳ Type of protection ‘i’ ۲۵۶
۱۰٫۵٫۴ Type of protection ‘m’ ۲۵۷
۱۰٫۵٫۵ Type of protection ‘n’ and ‘n’ ۲۵۷
۱۰٫۵٫۶ Type of protection ‘o’ ۲۵۸
۱۰٫۵٫۷ Type of protection ‘p’ ۲۵۸
۱۰٫۵٫۸ Type of protection ‘q’ ۲۵۹
۱۰٫۵٫۹ Type of protection ‘s’ ۲۵۹
۱۰٫۵٫۱۰ Type of protection ‘de’ ۲۵۹
۱۰٫۶ Types of Protection for Ingress of Water and Solid Particles 260
۱۰٫۶٫۱ European practice 260
۱۰٫۶٫۲ American practice 261
۱۰٫۷ Certification of Hazardous Area Equipment 265
۱۰٫۸ Marking of Equipment Nameplates 266
References 266
Further Reading 266
۱۱ Fault Calculations and Stability Studies 269
۱۱٫۱ Introduction 269
۱۱٫۲ Constant Voltage Source – High Voltage 269
۱۱٫۳ Constant Voltage Source – Low Voltage 271
۱۱٫۴ Non-Constant Voltage Sources – All Voltage Levels 273
۱۱٫۵ Calculation of Fault Current due to Faults at the Terminals of a Generator 274
۱۱٫۵٫۱ Pre-fault or initial conditions 274
۱۱٫۵٫۲ Calculation of fault current – rms symmetrical values 276
۱۱٫۶ Calculate the Sub-Transient symmetrical RMS Fault Current Contributions 279
۱۱٫۶٫۱ Calculate the sub-transient peak fault current contributions 281
۱۱٫۷ Application of the Doubling Factor to Fault Current I
frms found in 11.6 287
۱۱٫۷٫۱ Worked example 288
۱۱٫۷٫۲ Breaking duty current 291
۱۱٫۸ Computer Programs for Calculating Fault Currents 292
۱۱٫۸٫۱ Calculation of fault current – rms and peak asymmetrical values 292
۱۱٫۸٫۲ Simplest case 293
۱۱٫۸٫۳ The circuit x-to-r ratio is known 293
۱۱٫۸٫۴ Detailed generator data is available 293
۱۱٫۸٫۵ Motor contribution to fault currents 293
۱۱٫۹ The use of Reactors 294
۱۱٫۹٫۱ Worked example 297
۱۱٫۱۰ Some Comments on the Application of IEC60363 and IEC60909 300
۱۱٫۱۱ Stability Studies 300
۱۱٫۱۱٫۱ Steady state stability 301
۱۱٫۱۱٫۲ Transient stability 303
xiii
References 308
Further Reading 309
۱۲ Protective Relay Coordination 311
۱۲٫۱ Introduction to Overcurrent Coordination 311
۱۲٫۱٫۱ Relay notation 313
۱۲٫۲ Generator Protection 313
۱۲٫۲٫۱ Main generators 313
۱۲٫۲٫۲ Overcurrent 314
۱۲٫۲٫۳ Differential stator current relay 318
۱۲٫۲٫۴ Field failure relay 319
۱۲٫۲٫۵ Reverse active power relay 321
۱۲٫۲٫۶ Negative phase sequence relay 322
۱۲٫۲٫۷ Stator earth fault relays 322
۱۲٫۲٫۸ Over terminal voltage 324
۱۲٫۲٫۹ Under terminal voltage 324
۱۲٫۲٫۱۰ Under- and overfrequency 325
۱۲٫۳ Emergency Diesel Generators 325
۱۲٫۴ Feeder Transformer Protection 326
۱۲٫۴٫۱ Overcurrent 329
۱۲٫۴٫۲ High-set or instantaneous current 330
۱۲٫۴٫۳ Characteristics of the upstream source 332
۱۲٫۵ Feeder Cable Protection 332
۱۲٫۵٫۱ Overcurrent protection 332
۱۲٫۵٫۲ Short-circuit protection 333
۱۲٫۵٫۳ Earth fault protection 333
۱۲٫۶ Busbar Protection in Switchboards 334
۱۲٫۶٫۱ Busbar zone protection 334
۱۲٫۶٫۲ Overcurrent protection 335
۱۲٫۶٫۳ Undervoltage protection 335
۱۲٫۷ High Voltage Induction Motor Protection 336
۱۲٫۷٫۱ Overloading or thermal image 337
۱۲٫۷٫۲ Instantaneous or high-set overcurrent 339
۱۲٫۷٫۳ Negative phase sequence 339
۱۲٫۷٫۴ Core balance earth fault 340
۱۲٫۷٫۵ Differential stator current 340
۱۲٫۷٫۶ Stalling current 340
۱۲٫۷٫۷ Limitation to the number of successive starts 341
۱۲٫۷٫۸ Undercurrent 341
۱۲٫۷٫۹ High winding temperature 342
۱۲٫۷٫۱۰ High bearing temperature 342
۱۲٫۷٫۱۱ Excessive vibration 342
۱۲٫۸ Low Voltage Induction Motor Protection 342
۱۲٫۸٫۱ Overloading or thermal image 343
۱۲٫۸٫۲ Instantaneous or high-set overcurrent 344
xiv
۱۲٫۸٫۳ Negative phase sequence 344
۱۲٫۸٫۴ Core balance earth fault 345
۱۲٫۸٫۵ Stalling current 345
۱۲٫۸٫۶ Limitation to the number of successive starts 345
۱۲٫۹ Low Voltage Static Load Protection 345
۱۲٫۹٫۱ Time-delayed overcurrent 346
۱۲٫۹٫۲ Instantaneous or high-set overcurrent 346
۱۲٫۹٫۳ Core balance earth fault 346
۱۲٫۱۰ Mathematical Equations for Representing Standard, Very and Extremely
Inverse Relays 346
References 349
۱۳ Earthing and Screening 351
۱۳٫۱ Purpose of Earthing 351
۱۳٫۱٫۱ Electric shock 351
۱۳٫۱٫۲ Damage to equipment 353
۱۳٫۱٫۳ Zero reference potential 353
۱۳٫۲ Site Locations 353
۱۳٫۲٫۱ Steel structures 354
۱۳٫۲٫۲ Land-based plants 354
۱۳٫۲٫۳ Concrete and brick-built structures 356
۱۳٫۳ Design of Earthing Systems 356
۱۳٫۳٫۱ High voltage systems 356
۱۳٫۳٫۲ Low voltage three-phase systems 357
۱۳٫۳٫۳ IEC types of earthing systems 360
۱۳٫۳٫۴ Earth loop impedance 365
۱۳٫۳٫۵ Earthing rods and grids 367
۱۳٫۴ Construction Details Relating to Earthing 371
۱۳٫۴٫۱ Frames, casings and cubicle steelwork 371
۱۳٫۴٫۲ Screwed and clearance hole entries 371
۱۳٫۴٫۳ Earthing only one end of a cable 372
۱۳٫۵ Screening and Earthing of Cables used in Electronic Circuits 373
۱۳٫۵٫۱ Capacitance and inductance mechanisms 373
۱۳٫۵٫۲ Screening against external interference 374
۱۳٫۵٫۳ Earthing of screens 379
۱۳٫۵٫۴ Screening of high frequencies 380
۱۳٫۵٫۵ Power earths, cubicle and clean earths 381
References 383
۱۴ Variable Speed Electrical Drivers 385
۱۴٫۱ Introduction 385
۱۴٫۱٫۱ Environment 386
۱۴٫۱٫۲ Power supply 386
۱۴٫۱٫۳ Economics 387
۱۴٫۲ Group 1 Methods 388
۱۴٫۲٫۱ Simple variable voltage supplies 388
۱۴٫۲٫۲ Pole-changing of the stator winding 389
xv
۱۴٫۲٫۳ Pole amplitude modulated motors 390
۱۴٫۲٫۴ Wound rotor induction motors 391
۱۴٫۳ Group 2 Methods 392
۱۴٫۳٫۱ Variable voltage constant frequency supply 392
۱۴٫۳٫۲ Variable frequency variable voltage supply 392
۱۴٫۴ Variable Speed DC Motors 394
۱۴٫۵ Electrical Submersible Pumps 394
۱۴٫۵٫۱ Introduction 394
۱۴٫۵٫۲ Electrical submersible pump construction 395
۱۴٫۶ Control Systems for AC Motors 397
References 400
۱۵ Harmonic Voltages and Currents 401
۱۵٫۱ Introduction 401
۱۵٫۲ Rectifiers 402
۱۵٫۲٫۱ Diode bridges 402
۱۵٫۲٫۲ Thyristor bridges 404
۱۵٫۲٫۳ Power transistor bridges 407
۱۵٫۲٫۴ DC motors 407
۱۵٫۳ Harmonic Content of the Supply Side Currents 413
۱۵٫۳٫۱ Simplified waveform of a six-pulse bridge 413
۱۵٫۳٫۲ Simplified commutation delay 414
۱۵٫۳٫۳ Fourier coefficients of the line current waveform 414
۱۵٫۳٫۴ Simplified waveform of a 12-pulse bridge 417
۱۵٫۴ Inverters 421
۱۵٫۴٫۱ Basic method of operation 421
۱۵٫۴٫۲ Three-phase power inversion 422
۱۵٫۴٫۳ Induction motor fed from a voltage source inverter 423
۱۵٫۵ Filtering of Power Line Harmonics 429
۱۵٫۶ Protection, Alarms and Indication 433
References 433
۱۶ Computer Based Power Management Systems 435
۱۶٫۱ Introduction 435
۱۶٫۲ Typical Configurations 435
۱۶٫۳ Main Functions 436
۱۶٫۳٫۱ High-speed load shedding 436
۱۶٫۳٫۲ Load shedding priority table 439
۱۶٫۳٫۳ Low-speed load shedding 440
۱۶٫۳٫۴ Inhibiting the starting of large motors 441
۱۶٫۳٫۵ VDU display of one-line diagrams 442
۱۶٫۳٫۶ Active power sharing for generators 443
۱۶٫۳٫۷ Isochronous control of system frequency 443
۱۶٫۳٫۸ Reactive power sharing for generators 444
۱۶٫۳٫۹ Isochronous control of busbar voltage 444
۱۶٫۳٫۱۰ Condition monitoring of the gas turbines 444
۱۶٫۳٫۱۱ Scheduling the starting up and shutting down of the main generators 445
xvi
۱۶٫۳٫۱۲ Control of the reacceleration of motor loads 446
۱۶٫۳٫۱۳ Auto-synchronising of the main generators 447
۱۶٫۳٫۱۴ Data logging, archiving, trending display, alarms, messages and
status reporting 448
۱۷ Uninterruptible Power Supplies 449
۱۷٫۱ AC Uninterruptible Power Supplies 449
۱۷٫۱٫۱ The inverter 449
۱۷٫۱٫۲ Coordination of the sub-circuit rated current with the inverter
rated current 450
۱۷٫۱٫۳ Earth fault leakage detection 451
۱۷٫۲ DC Uninterruptible Power Supplies 451
۱۷٫۲٫۱ UPS battery chargers 452
۱۷٫۲٫۲ Batteries 455
۱۷٫۳ Redundancy Configurations 457
References 458
۱۸ Miscellaneous Subjects 459
۱۸٫۱ Lighting Systems 459
۱۸٫۱٫۱ Types of lighting fittings 461
۱۸٫۱٫۲ Levels of illumination 461
۱۸٫۲ Navigation Aids 463
۱۸٫۲٫۱ Flashing marker lights 463
۱۸٫۲٫۲ White and red flashing lights 464
۱۸٫۲٫۳ Navigation buoys 465
۱۸٫۲٫۴ Identification panels 465
۱۸٫۲٫۵ Aircraft hazard lighting 465
۱۸٫۲٫۶ Helicopter landing facilities 466
۱۸٫۲٫۷ Radar 466
۱۸٫۲٫۸ Radio direction-finder 466
۱۸٫۲٫۹ Sonar devices 467
۱۸٫۳ Cathodic Protection 467
References 468
۱۹ Preparing Equipment Specifications 469
۱۹٫۱ The Purpose of Specifications 469
۱۹٫۲ A Typical Format for a Specification 470
۱۹٫۲٫۱ Introduction 471
۱۹٫۲٫۲ Scope of supply 471
۱۹٫۲٫۳ Service and environmental conditions 471
۱۹٫۲٫۴ Compliant international standards 471
۱۹٫۲٫۵ Definition of technical and non-technical terms 471
۱۹٫۲٫۶ Performance or functional requirements 472
۱۹٫۲٫۷ Design and construction requirements 473
۱۹٫۲٫۸ Inspection and testing 474
۱۹٫۲٫۹ Spare parts 475
۱۹٫۲٫۱۰ Documentation 475
۱۹٫۲٫۱۱ Appendices 477
xvii
۲۰ Summary of the Generalised Theory of Electrical Machines
as Applied to Synchronous Generators and Induction Motors 479
۲۰٫۱ Introduction 479
۲۰٫۲ Synchronous Generator 480
۲۰٫۲٫۱ Basic mathematical transformations 483
۲۰٫۳ Some Notes on Induction Motors 490
۲۰٫۳٫۱ Derived reactances 491
۲۰٫۳٫۲ Application of three-phase short circuit 491
۲۰٫۳٫۳ Derived reactances and time constants for an induction motor 493
۲۰٫۳٫۴ Derivation of an equivalent circuit 495
۲۰٫۳٫۵ ‘Re-iteration or recapitulation’ ۴۹۶
۲۰٫۳٫۶ Contribution of three-phase short-circuit current from
induction motor 501
References 504
Further Reading 505
Appendix A Abbreviations Commonly used in Electrical Documents 507
Appendix B A List of Standards Often Used for Designing Electrical Systems and
for Specifying Equipment 517
B.1 International Electro-technical Commission (Europe) 517
B.2 Institute of Petroleum (UK) 525
B.3 International Standards Organisation (Worldwide) 526
B.4 British Standards Institution (UK) 526
B.5 American Petroleum Institute (USA) 530
B.6 Counseil International des Grands Reseaux Electriques (France) 530
B.7 Engineering Equipment and Materials Users Association (UK) 530
B.8 Electricity Council (UK) 531
B.9 Verband Deutscher Electrechniker (Germany) 531
B.10 Institute of Electronic and Electrical Engineers Inc. (USA) 531
B.11 Miscellaneous References from the UK 532
Appendix C Numbering System for Protective Devices, Control and Indication
Devices for Power Systems 533
C.1 Application of Protective Relays, Control and Alarm Devices
for Power System Circuits 533
C.1.1 Notes to sub-section C.1 535
C.2 Electrical Power System Device Numbers and Functions 536
Appendix D Under-Frequency and Over-Temperature Protection of Gas-Turbine
Driven Generators 539
Appendix E List of Document Types to be Produced During a Project 545
E.1 Contractors Documents 546
E.1.1 Feasibility studies 546
E.1.2 Conceptual design 546
E.1.3 Detail design 547
xviii
E.2 Manufacturers Documents 549
E.2.1 Feasibility studies 549
E.2.2 Conceptual design 549
E.2.3 Detail design 549
Appendix F Worked Example for Calculating the Performance of a Gas Turbine 551
F.1 The Requirements and Data Given 551
F.2 Basic Requirements 551
F.3 Detailed Requirements 552
F.4 Basic Solutions 552
F.5 Detailed Solutions 553
Appendix G Worked Example for the Calculation of Volt-drop in a Circuit
Containing an Induction Motor 559
G.1 Introduction 559
Appendix H Worked Example for the Calculation of Earthing Current and Electric
Shock Hazard Potential Difference in a Rod and Grid Earthing System 585
H.1 Worked Example 585
Appendix I Conversion Factors for the SI System of Units 597
I.1 Fundamental SI Units 597
I.2 Derived Non-electrical Units 597
I.3 Derived Electrical Units 598
I.4 Conversions 598
I.4.1 Length 598
I.4.2 Area 599
I.4.3 Volume 599
I.4.4 Mass and density 600
I.4.5 Velocity and acceleration 600
I.4.6 Force 601
I.4.7 Torque 601
I.4.8 Power 601
I.4.9 Energy and work 601
I.4.10 Pressure 602
I.4.11 Moment of inertia and momentum 603
I.4.12 Illumination 603
I.4.13 Electricity and magnetism 604
I.4.14 Miscellaneous quantities 604
I.5 International Standards Organisation (ISO) Conditions 605
I.6 Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP) Conditions 605
I.7 Regularly Used Constants 605
I.8 Regularly Used Prefixes 606
I.9 References 606
Index 607
الف) هادی منفرد در یک صفحه مسطح
ظرفیت )خازنی( نشتی
خود القایی
ب) دو هادی با اتصال موازی.
ظرفیت تزویج بین هادی ها.
خودالقایی هر هادی
اندوکتانس متقابل بین هادی ها.
ظرفیت تزویج
خودالقایی هادی
اندوکتانس متقابل بین هادی و استوانه.
طول کابل به طور قابل توجهی بیشتر از شعاع یک هادی و جدایی آن از هادی های دیگر درکابل و یا اسکرین آن است. بنابراین تمام ظرفیت ها(خازنی) و اندوکتانس ها در طول کابل توزیع می شوند. مقاومت هادی و مقاومت نشتی عایق نیز توزیع می شوند. برای محاسبات عملی کافی است که این پارامترها را به عناصر اندوکتانس، ظرفیت و مقاومت تجزیه کنید.
۱۳٫۵٫۲ غربالگری در برابر تداخل خارجی
کابل های ابزار دقیق به صورت موازی در امتداد مسیرهای مشابه همانند کابل های برق فشار قوی به کار گرفته می شوند. مسیریابی به گونه ای طراحی می شود که فاصله گذاری پیش فرض بین کابل های برق و کابل های ابزار استفاده شود. در جدول ۱۳٫۱ حداقل فاصله بندی بین کابل هایی که در گودال یا مجموعه ای از رک ها به کارگرفته می شوند را مشاهده می کنید. موقعیت هایی وجود دارد که در آن یک کابل برق می تواند تداخل را به ویژه به شکل جریان القا شده متقابل به اطراف پراکنده کند، به عنوان مثال:
• کابل های تک هسته ای که به صورت گروه ها به کار گرفته می شوند
- کابل های حامل جریان های ناپایدار
• کابل های حامل جریان های هارمونیک، مانند سیستم های قدرت حفاری.
• کابل های حامل جریانهای ضربه ای ، برای مثال شروع حرکت موتورهای بزرگ به طور مستقیم بر روی خط.
• کابل های حامل جریان های خطا با مقدار زیاد ، به ویژه اگر در زره پوش کابل جریان داشته باشند.
جدول ۱۳٫۱. جدایی کابل های الکترونیکی و قدرت
شکل ۱۳٫۱۳ تزویج متقابل بین کابل های جدا شده از راه دور.
در این نمونه ها، وضعیت مورد توجه ترکیبی از یک هادی منفرد در بالای یک صفحه و یک هادی منفرد دیگر در بالای یک صفحه مشابه است، که در یک استوانه یا پوشش(اسکرین) به کار گرفته می شود، همانطور که در شکل ۱۳٫۱۳ مشاهده می کنید. منبع تداخل در این مثال، یک کابل سه فاز است که در آن جریانهای ناپایدار جاری هستند. جریان هایی که ناپایدار هستند را می توان با یک جریان معادل جایگزین کرد، که مجموع
یا حاصل تمام جریانهای سه فاز است. کابل سه فاز فرض می شود که دارای زره پوش است، و زره پوش در یک یا هر دو سر اتصال زمین می شود. اتصل به زمین زره پوش ، میدان الکتریکی خارجی را به صفر کاهش می دهد و بنابراین تنها تزویج القایی متقابل استقامتی باید در نظر گرفته شود. مدار معادل هادی های مختلف و غربالگری را در شکل ۱۳٫۱۴ مشاهده می کنید.
که:
…….
قسمت دوم
۱۴٫۳ روش های گروه ۲
در این گروه، سیستم های متعددی وجود دارند که از یک منبع برق برای ارائه ولتاژ متغیر با یک فرکانس متغیر استفاده می کنند. اکثر این سیستم ها از یک سو کننده و تریستورها به شکل مبدل و اینورتر(وارونگر) استفاده می کنند. نمونه هایی از این سیستم ها عبارتند از:
• یکسوکننده تریستور برای ولتاژ متغیر اما فرکانس ثابت.
• اینورتر-یکسوکننده تریستور برای ولتاژ متغیر و فرکانس متغیر.
از این سیستم ها می توان برای تغذیه موتورهای القایی یا سنکرون استفاده کرد، اگر چه روش اول، برای موتورهای القایی کوچک تا حدود ۲۰ کیلو ولت استفاده می شود.
روش دوم برای موتورهای تا حدود ۳۰,۰۰۰ kW کیلو وات مناسب است.
در تمام موارد، از طرح های موتور استاندارد استفاده می شود اما باید اثرات جریان ها و ولتاژهای هارمونیک در بخش تولید موتور توجه کرد.
۱۴٫۳٫۱ تغذیه فرکانس ثابت ولتاژ متغیر
مدار تریستور با سیم پیچ های استاتور موتور، سری می شود. در هر سیم پیچ مدار، دو تریستور وجود دارد که به صورت موازی با قطبهای متضاد به هم متصل می شوند. این امر امکان هدایت کنترل شده در سیم پیچ ها و جاری شدن جریان در هر دو جهت از طریق سیم پیچ را فراهم می کند. ولتاژ فاز با تأخیر در آتش زنی تریستورها تغییر می کند و بنابراین تنها بخشی از شکل موج سینوسی به موتور اعمال می شود. در نتیجه، مقادیر متوسط و rms ولتاژ اعمال شده کاهش می یابد. بنابراین گشتاور تولید شده توسط موتور، نسبت به مربع مقدار rms ولتاژ اعمال شده کاهش می یابد. مدارهایی برای موتورها با اتصال ستاره و مثلث نیز موجود هستند. از کنترل بازخورد حلقه بسته ممکن است برای تنظیم آتش زنی تریستورها استفاده شود، بنابراین تنظیم دقیق سرعت امکان پذیر است. این سیستم ها فقط برای ماشین های کوچک استفاده می شود، برای مثال تا ۲۰ کیلو وات، چراکه جریان و ولتاژ هارمونیک زیادی تولید می کنند.
۱۴٫۳٫۲ تغذیه ولتاژ متغیر فرکانس متغیر
یک مدار معمولی اصلی را در شکل ۱۴٫۳ مشاهده می کنید که شامل دو قسمت اصلی، یک یکسو کننده تریستور تک پل سه فاز و یک اینورتر تریستور تک پل سه فاز است. یکسو کننده با اعمال سیگنال های کنترل شده به گیت های تریستور، ولتاژ DC متغیر را تولید می کند. جریان خروجی یکسو کننده بوسیله یک اندوکتانس سری فیلتر می شود به طوری که تقریبا یک جریان خالص DC از طریق سه انشعاب اینورتر متصل به پل عبور می کند به طوری که سه جریان در موتور جاری می شود. این امر از طریق آتش زنی گیت های اینورتر تحقق می یابد و فرکانس آتش زنی چرخه ای، فرکانس اساسی AC را در موتور تعیین می کند. یک نوسان ساز فرکانس متغیر برای تولید پالس های آتش زنی برای تریستورهای اینورتر استفاده می شود. می توانیم نوسان ساز را برای دریافت سیگنال های بازخورد به منظور کنترل دقیق سرعت و سایر سیگنال ها برای اهداف حفاظتی، از قبیل اتصال کوتاه، و توقف، محدودیت فعلی تنظیم کرد. اگر یک موتور القایی در فرکانسی زیر فرکانس عملیاتی نرمال خود راه اندازی شود، اگر مقدار ولتاژ تغذیه ثابت باقی بماند، جریان فاصله هوایی افزایش می یابد. افزایش شار موجب اشباع مغناطیسی در مدار آهنی موتور می شود و این به نوبه خود سبب افزایش بسیار زیاد جریان مغناطیسی در شاخه Xm در شکل های ۵٫۱ یا ۱۵٫۱۱ خواهد شد.
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